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• Appendix A: The Periodic Table
• Appendix B: Essential Mathematics
• Appendix C: Units and Conversion Factors
• Appendix D: Fundamental Physical Constants
• Appendix E: Water Properties
• Appendix F: Composition of Commercial Acids and Bases
• Capillary Action Calculation
• Chapter 1: Chemistry of the Lab
  • Chemical Change
  • Classifying Matter
  • Extensive and Intensive Properties
  • Law of Conservation of Matter
  • Mass versus Weight
  • Measurements Overview
  • Physical Change
  • Practice Physical vs Chemical Change
  • Practice Problems: SI Units and Derived SI Units
  • Practice Questions Accuracy and Precision
  • Practice Questions Law of Conservation of Mass
  • Practice Questions Rounding and Significant figures in calculations
  • Practice Questions: Scientific Method
  • Practice Questions: Classifying Matter
  • Practice Questions: Domains of Chemistry
  • Practice Questions: Extensive vs Intensive Properties
  • Practice Questions: Mass vs Weight
  • Practice Questions: Types of Matter
  • Practice Significant Digits More Multiplication/Division
  • The Domains of Chemistry
  • The Scientific Method
  • Types of Matter
• Chapter 16: Thermodynamics
• Chapter 17: Electrochemistry
• Chapter 2: Periodic Table, Atoms & Molecules
  • Atomic Mass
  • Chapter 2: Periodic Table, Atoms & Molecules Introduction
  • Chemical Nomenclature of inorganic molecules
  • Dalton’s Atomic Theory
  • History of the atom
  • Practice Questions for % Composition
  • Practice Questions for Empirical and Molecular Formulae
  • Practice Questions for Molar Mass
  • Practice Questions Periodic Table
• Chapter 3: Solutions
  • Chapter 3 Introduction
  • Mass-Volume Percent (%w/v)
  • Other Units for Solution Concentrations
  • Parts per Million (ppm) and Parts per Billion (ppb)
  • Practice Questions for Dilution
  • Practice Questions for Molarity
  • Practice Questions for Solutions with Other Units
  • Solution Section Summary
  • Volume Percent (%v/v)
• Chapter 4: Chemical Reactions
  • Additional Information in Chemical Equations
  • Balancing Equations Key Concepts and Summary
  • Chapter 4: Chemical Reactions Introduction
  • Reaction Yields
  • Writing Chemical Equations
• Chapter 5: Thermochemistry
• Chapter 8: Advanced Bonding Theories
• Chapter 8: intro
• Chapter 9: Gases
  • Avogadro’s Law Revisited
  • Chapter 9 – Gases Introduction
  • Chemical Stoichiometry and Gases
  • Collection of Gases over Water
  • Effusion and Diffusion of Gases
  • Effusion and Diffusion of Gases – Summary
  • Effusion and Diffusion of Gases Practice Questions
  • Gas Density and Molar Mass
  • Gas Pressure Practice Questions
  • Kinetic Molecular Theory Practice Questions
  • Kinetic Molecular Theory Summary
  • Molecular Speeds and Kinetic Energy
  • Moles of Gas and Volume: Avogadro’s Law
  • Non-Ideal Gas Behavior
  • Non-Ideal Gas Behavior Practice Questions
  • Pressure and Temperature: Amontons’s Law
  • Relating Pressure, Volume, Amount, and Temperature: The Ideal Gas Law
  • Relating Pressure, Volume, Amount, and Temperature: The Ideal Gas Law Introduction
  • Standard Conditions of Temperature and Pressure
  • Stoichiometry of Gaseous Substances, Mixtures, and Reactions – Introduction
  • Stoichiometry of Gaseous Substances, Mixtures, and Reactions – Practice Questions
  • Stoichiometry of Gaseous Substances, Mixtures, and Reactions – Summary
  • Summary Ideal Gas Law: Relating Pressure, Volume, Amount, and Temperature
  • The Ideal Gas
  • The Kinetic-Molecular Theory
  • The Kinetic-Molecular Theory Explains the Behavior of Gases, Part I
  • The Kinetic-Molecular Theory Explains the Behavior of Gases, Part II
  • The Pressure of a Mixture of Gases: Dalton’s Law
  • Volume and Pressure: Boyle’s Law
  • Volume and Temperature: Charles’s Law
• Computational Chemistry in Drug Design
• Coupled Equilibria – Multiple Equilibria Example
• Effect of Molecular Structure on Acid-Base Strength -Binary Acids and Bases
• Main Textbook Table of Contents
  • History of the atom
• Safety – Exposure, Equipment, & PPE
• Safety – Handling Chemicals
• Safety – Introduction
• Safety – Preparation and Emergencies
• Sample Page
• Table of Contents CHEM 203
• Table of Contents: CHEM 201
• Table of Contents: CHEM 209
• Ternary Acids and Bases
• Test for Safety Course
• The Ionization of Hydrated Metal Ions
• Walter Kohn: Nobel Laureate
• WeBWorK Test
• Site Map!
• Enthalpy Practice Questions
• Chemistry Open Textbook (Version 2)
  • Review of Background Topics
    • 0.1 What is Chemistry?
      • Domains of Chemistry
      • Divisions of Chemistry
    • 0.2 Doing Experiments
      • The Scientific Method
      • Safety in the Chemistry Lab
        • Where to Find Safety Information
        • WHMIS
        • Best Practices in the Lab
        • Online Safety Course – Refresher Videos
      • Communicating Science
        • “Claim – Evidence – Reasoning” Statements
        • References and Plagiarism
    • 0.3 Measurements and Data
      • Measurements: Overview
      • SI Base Units
      • Prefixes for SI units
      • Derived SI Units
      • Measurements in Chemistry
        • Formula Mass
        • Atomic Mass Units
        • The Mole
        • Concentration of Mixtures
        • Units of Concentration – Molarity
        • Solutions & Dilutions
        • Units of Concentration – Mass Percent (%w/w)
        • Units of Concentration – Volume Percent (%v/v)
        • Units of Concentration – Mass-Volume Percent (%w/v)
        • Units of Concentration – Parts per Million (ppm) and Parts per Billion (ppb)
        • Gas Pressure
      • Uncertainty, Accuracy, and Precision
        • Uncertainty in Measurements
        • Accuracy and Precision
        • Outliers in Data Sets
        • Significant Figures
        • Significant Figures: Rules for Rounding a Number
        • Significant Figures in Adding or Subtracting
        • Significant Figures in Multiplication and Division
        • Significant Figures in Logarithms
        • Significant Figures: Practice Questions
        • Sources of Uncertainty in Measurements in the Lab
    • 0.4 Atoms and Molecules
      • The Periodic Table
      • Atomic Structure
      • Chemical Symbol
      • Isotopes
      • Atom vs Compound
      • Covalent Compounds
      • Ionic Compounds
      • Polyatomic Ions
      • Chemical Nomenclature of Ionic Compounds
      • Chemical Nomenclature of Inorganic Molecular Compounds
      • Chemical Nomenclature of Acids
      • Naming Inorganic Molecules Practice Questions
      • Chemical Formula
      • Chemical Formula questions
    • 0.5 Chemical Reactions and Stoichiometry
      • Balancing Equations
      • Practice Questions on Writing Chemical Equations
      • Equations for Ionic Reactions
      • Reaction Stoichiometry
      • Reaction Yields – Limiting Reagent
      • Reaction Yields – Percent Yield
      • Reaction Stoichiometry Questions
    • 0.6 Math Skills for Chemistry
      • Unit Analysis
      • Solving Quadratic Equations
      • Weighted Averages
      • Logarithms and Exponentials
      • Scientific Notation
      • Two Dimensional (x-y) Graphing
  • Chapter 1: Electronic Structure & Properties of Elements
    • 1.1 Electromagnetic Energy
      • Waves
      • Standing Waves (Stationary waves)
      • Blackbody Radiation and the Ultraviolet Catastrophe
      • Line Spectra
      • The Photoelectric Effect
      • Electromagnetic Energy Key concepts and summary
    • 1.2 The Bohr Model
      • Bohr Model Practice Problems
    • 1.3 Development of Quantum Theory
      • Behavior in the Microscopic World
      • The Quantum–Mechanical Model of an Atom
      • Understanding Quantum Theory of Electrons in Atoms
      • The Pauli Exclusion Principle
      • Development of Quantum Theory Summary
    • 1.4 Electronic Configurations
      • Orbital Energies and Atomic Structure
      • Electron Configurations of Atoms
      • Electron Configurations of Ions
      • Electron Configuration Practice Questions
    • 1.5 Periodic Properties
      • Effective Nuclear Charge (Zeff)
      • Variation in Covalent Radii
      • Variation in Ionic Radii
      • Ionization Energies
      • Successive Ionization Energies
      • Variation in Electron Affinities
      • Periodic Properties Practice Questions
  • Chapter 2: Molecular Structures in 2D
    • 2.1 Ionic and Covalent Bonding
      • Electronegativity
      • Electronegativity and Bond Type
      • Ionic Bonding
      • Covalent Bonding
      • Strengths of Ionic and Covalent Bonds
      • Ionic Bonding Practice Questions
    • 2.2 Lewis Symbols and Structures
      • Exceptions to the Octet Rule
      • Lewis Structure Practice
    • 2.3 Curved or Curly Arrows, Arrow pushing
    • 2.4 Resonance
      • Equivalent vs. Non-Equivalent Resonance
      • Resonance Practice Questions
    • 2.5 Introduction to Arrow Pushing in Reaction mechanisms
  • Chapter 3: Molecular Structures in 3D
    • 3.1 VSEPR Theory
      • VSEPR – Electron-Pair Geometry
      • Electron-Pair Geometry vs. Molecular Shape
      • Predicting Electron-Pair Geometry and Molecular Shape
      • Molecular Structure for Multicenter Molecules
      • Practice Problems for VSEPR
    • 3.2 Isomers
    • 3.3 Molecular Polarity and Dipole Moment
      • Practice Problems for Polarity
      • Practice Questions Electronegativity and Bond Polarity
  • Chapter 4: Advanced Bonding Theories
    • 4.1 Valence Bond Theory
      • Valence Bond Theory Practice
    • 4.2 Hybrid Atomic Orbitals
      • sp Hybridization
      • sp² Hybridization
      • sp³ Hybridization
      • sp³d and sp³d² Hybridization
      • Assignment of Hybrid Orbitals to Central Atoms
      • Hybrid Atomic Orbitals Summary
      • Hybrid Atomic Orbitals Practice Questions
      • Multiple Bonds
      • Multiple Bonds Summary and Practice Questions
    • 4.3 Molecular Orbital Theory
      • Molecular Orbital Energy Diagrams
      • Bond Order
      • Bonding in Diatomic Molecules
      • The Diatomic Molecules of the Second Period
      • Band Theory
    • 4.4 Molecular Orbital Diagrams, Bond Order, and Number of Unpaired Electrons
      • Ion Predictions with MO Diagrams
      • Molecular Orbital Theory Summary
      • Molecular Orbital Theory Practice Questions
  • Chapter 5: Collections of Chemical Species
    • 5.1 Intermolecular Forces
      • Dispersion Forces
      • Dipole-Dipole Attraction
      • Hydrogen Bonding
      • Summary of Intermolecular Forces
      • IMF Questions
    • 5.2 Properties of Liquids
      • Liquids Practice
  • Chapter 6: Gases
    • 6.1 The Ideal Gas Law
      • Gas Law Practice
    • 6.2 Gas Behaviour: Kinetic-Molecular Theory
    • 6.3 The Boltzmann Distribution and Gases
      • Temperature, Kinetic Energy, and Distribution of Speeds
      • Mass and Distribution of Speeds
      • Explore: Speed Distributions of Gases
    • 6.4 Kinetic Molecular Theory and Gas Pressure
      • Pressure and n
      • Pressure and Volume
      • Pressure and Temperature
      • Kinetic Molecular Theory Practice
    • 6.5 Standard Conditions
    • 6.6 Non-Ideal Gas Behaviour
      • The van der Waals Equation
      • Non-Ideal Gas Behaviour Practice
  • Chapter 7: Chemical Kinetics
    • 7.1 Expressing Reaction Rates
      • Determining Rates of Reaction
      • Relative Rates of Reaction
      • Summary and Problems: Rates of Reaction
    • 7.2 Factors Affecting Reaction Rates
      • Chemical Nature of the Reactants (Ea)
      • Physical States of the Reactants
      • Temperature of the Reactants
      • Concentrations of the Reactants
      • Presence of a Catalyst
      • Summary and Problems: Factors Affecting Reaction Rates
    • 7.3 Rate Laws
      • Orders of Reaction
      • Method of Initial Rates
      • Reaction Order and Rate Constant Units
      • Summary and Problems: Rate Laws
    • 7.4 Integrated Rate Laws
      • First-Order Reactions
      • Second Order Reactions
      • Zero-Order Reactions
      • Half Life of a Reaction
      • Half Life of First Order Reactions
      • Half Life of Second Order Reactions
      • Half Life of Zero Order Reactions
      • Integrated Rate Laws Summary and Problems
    • 7.5 Collision Theory
      • Activation Energy and the Arrhenius Equation
    • 7.6 Reaction Mechanisms
      • Unimolecular Elementary Reactions
      • Bimolecular Elementary Reactions
      • Termolecular Elementary Reactions
      • Relating Reaction Mechanisms to Rate Laws
      • Reaction Mechanisms Summary and Practice Questions
    • 7.7 Catalysis
      • Homogeneous Catalysts
      • Heterogeneous Catalysts
      • Catalysis Summary and Practice Questions
  • Chapter 8: Chemical Equilibrium
    • 8.1 Chemical Equilibria
      • Summary and Problems: Chemical Equilibria
    • 8.2 Equilibrium Constants
      • Determining the Direction of a Reaction: Q and K
      • Equilibrium Constant K
      • Homogeneous Equilibria
      • Heterogeneous Equilibria
      • Math With Equilibrium Constants
      • Equilibrium Constants: Summary
    • 8.3 Shifting Equilibria: Le Châtelier’s Principle
      • Effect of a change in Concentration
      • Effect of a Change in Temperature
      • Effect of a Catalyst
      • Kinetics and Equilibrium: The Haber-Bosch Process
      • Shifting Equilibria: Le Châtelier’s Principle – Summary
    • 8.4 Equilibrium Calculations
      • Calculation of an Equilibrium Constant
      • Equilibrium Calculations – Calculating a Missing Equilibrium Concentration
      • Equilibrium Calculations – from Initial Concentrations
      • Equilibrium Calculations: The “Small-X” Assumption
      • Equilibrium Calculations: Summary
  • Chapter 9: Acid-Base Equilibria
    • 9.1 Brønsted-Lowry Acids and Bases
      • Ion Concentrations in Pure Water
      • The Inverse Relation between [H₃O⁺] and [OH⁻]
      • Representing the Acid-Base Behavior of an Amphoteric Substance
      • Brønsted-Lowry Acids and Bases Summary
    • 9.2 pH and pOH
      • Calculating pH and pOH
      • Measuring pH and pOH
      • pH and pOH Summary
    • 9.3 Relative Strengths of Acids and Bases
      • Acid and Base Ionization Constants
      • Relative Strengths of Conjugate Acid-Base Pairs
      • Relative Strengths of Acids and Bases Summary
    • 9.4 Acid-Base Equilibrium Calculations
      • Acid-Base Calculations 1
      • Acid-Base Calculations 2
      • Acid-Base Calculations 3
      • Acid-Base Calculations 4
      • Acid-Base Equilibrium Calculations Practice Questions
    • 9.5 Hydrolysis of Salts
      • Salts with Acidic Ions
      • Salts with Basic Ions
      • Salts with Acidic and Basic Ions
      • Hydrolysis of a salt Summary
    • 9.6 Polyprotic Acids
      • Calculations with Polyprotic Acids
      • Triprotic Acids
      • Polyprotic Acids Practice Questions
    • 9.7 Buffers
      • How Buffers Work
      • Buffer Capacity
      • Selection of Suitable Buffer Mixtures
      • The Henderson-Hasselbalch Equation
      • Buffer Summary
    • 9.8 Acid-Base Titrations
      • Finding the Endpoint of a Titration
      • Acid-Base Colour Indicators
      • Titration Calculations
      • Acid-Base Titrations Practice Questions
  • Chapter 10: Solubility
    • 10.1 Precipitation and Dissolution
      • The Solubility Product
      • Ksp and Solubility
      • Predicting Precipitation
      • Common Ion Effect
      • Precipitation and Dissolution Summary
    • 10.2 Lewis Acids and Bases
      • Calculations with Formation Constants
      • Lewis Acid and Base Practice Questions
    • 10.3 Coupled Equilibria
      • Coupled Equilibria – Increased Solubility in Acidic Solutions
      • Coupled Equilibria Summary
  • Chapter 11: Energy and Thermodynamics
    • 11.1 Energy Basics
      • Energy
      • Thermal Energy, Temperature, and Heat
      • Energy Basics – Summary
    • 11.2 Calorimetry
      • Calorimetry Summary & Practice
    • 11.3 Enthalpy
      • Standard Enthalpy of Combustion
      • Standard Enthalpy of Formation
      • Hess’s Law
      • Enthalpy – Summary
    • 11.4 Thermodynamics
      • Spontaneity
      • Dispersal of Matter and Energy
      • Spontaniety Summary
    • 11.5 Entropy
      • Entropy and Microstates
      • Predicting the Sign of ΔS
      • Entropy Summary
    • 11.6 The Second and Third Laws of Thermodynamics
      • The Second Law of Thermodynamics
      • The Third Law of Thermodynamics
      • 2nd and 3rd Law of Thermodynamics Summary
    • 11.7 Free Energy
      • What’s “Free” about ΔG?
      • Calculating Free Energy Change
      • Free Energy Changes for Coupled Reactions
      • Temperature Dependence of Spontaneity
      • Free Energy and Equilibrium
      • Free Energy Summary
  • Chapter 12: Electrochemistry
    • 12.1 Review of Redox Chemistry
      • Oxidation Numbers
      • Balancing Redox Equations
      • Review of Redox Chemistry Summary
    • 12.2 Galvanic Cells
      • Cell Notation
      • Galvanic Cell Summary
    • 12.3 Electrode and Cell Potentials
      • Interpreting Electrode and Cell Potentials
      • Electrode and Cell Potential Summary
    • 12.4 Potential, Free Energy, and Equilibrium
      • E° and ΔG°
      • E° and K
      • Potentials at Non-Standard Conditions: The Nernst Equation
      • Potential, Free Energy and Equilibrium Summary
    • 12.5 Batteries and Fuel Cells
      • Single-Use Batteries
      • Rechargeable (Secondary) Batteries
      • Fuel Cells
      • Batteries and Fuel Cells Summary
    • 12.6 Corrosion
      • Corrosion Practice Questions
    • 12.7 Electrolysis
      • The Electrolysis of Molten Sodium Chloride
      • The Electrolysis of Water
      • The Electrolysis of Aqueous Sodium Chloride
      • Electroplating
      • Quantitative Aspects of Electrolysis
      • Electrolysis Summary
  • Appendices
    • Appendix: The Periodic Table
    • Appendix: Units and Conversion Factors
    • Appendix: Fundamental Physical Constants
    • Appendix: Water Properties
    • Appendix: Composition of Commercial Acids and Bases
    • Appendix: Standard Thermodynamic Properties for Selected Substances
    • Appendix: Ionization Constants of Weak Acids
    • Appendix: Ionization Constants of Weak Bases
    • Appendix: Solubility Products
    • Appendix: Formation Constants for Complex Ions
    • Appendix: Standard Electrode (Half-Cell) Potentials
    • Appendix: Half-Lives for Several Radioactive Isotopes